水烟管有多危险?

火星有像地球一样的地层吗?水烟危险吗?为什么冷水会让我的牙痛加重，而冰啤酒不会?用发酵粉清洗蔬菜有用吗?有两个人有相同的指纹吗?我为什么会梦话?另外，我们的生物钟是如何工作的。克里斯博士会回答你在本周的《问》节目中提出的问题!金宝搏app最新下载裸体科学家……

优西比乌斯:早上好，克里斯。你还好吗?

克里斯-我很好，谢谢优西比乌斯。你好吗？

优西比乌斯:我很好。我的生物钟似乎在工作。

克里斯-精彩的链接。你想让我谈谈这个惊人的故事吗我采访了罗斯玛丽·布朗女士她本周早些时候发表了这篇文章。因为自从我开始乘坐国际航班参加各种活动并饱受时差之苦以来，我就对“生物钟”着迷了。但实际上，在那之前我就对生物钟产生了兴趣，因为我的一个大学朋友在攻读博士学位时就在研究“生物钟”。什么是生物钟?事实上，你体内的每一个细胞，几乎无一例外，都知道现在是什么时间。你会想为什么这一定会发生，为什么这很重要?这样你的身体就能加快新陈代谢;它可以调整自己的活动;它生长的时候会减速; it can gear when it kills cells; it can gear when it grows new cells. This has to happen at just the right time for optimal health. There's no point in having your metabolism thundering away at night time when youre sleeping and then being really sluggish during the day when you're trying to do stuff. So time is really critical. And our timing in our body is set by the Sun and it sets a master clock in the brain and the brain then send signals to every single part of the body synching up those clocks. So if we could work out what time those clocks are saying it is, then we know we could optimize health care for people. We can work out whose clock is off kilter because we know that certain people do suffer from clock disorders. We can also work out when best to give drugs because, believe it or not, vaccines given at some times of the day work much better than the same vaccine given at a different time of the day. Certain people will make more antibodies if they have a flu vaccine in the morning than the evening. Chemotherapy will cure cancer better at some times of day than others. The problem has been though to measure accurately the time of a person's body clock, to know when to make those interventions has been really tricky. You had to take blood samples from a person every hour on the hour and then do this very complicated test of the genes that are turned on and turned off in those cells. So this week in PNAS what researchers in America have done - this is Rosemary Brown's paper - they've taken a large group of people, they've taken blood cells just from a simple blood draw and looked at the genes which are turned on in those blood cells. And what they're inferring is that when the body clock ticks to a certain position or certain time it will have turned on certain genes, turned off other genes. And if you measure those genes and you know what their relationship is to each other, and they've used a complex computational self-learning algorithm to do this, you can actually get a really accurate time for the person's body clock to within an hour or so, which is really very good. So they've actually published the algorithm, and it's in the public domain now so other scientists can begin to use this and shown how it works and it looks like will now be able to take a simple sample of blood. In fact, you need two samples of blood about an hour or so apart and you can tell with very high accuracy the time of that person's body clock, so you can then begin to ask important research questions, but also optimise their medical care potentially as well. Amazing isn't it?

优西比乌斯——美。绝对惊人。这真的很有趣。基拉尼，早上好。受欢迎的。

基拉尼-早上好。请告诉我。你知道在地球的各个层上。我们有地壳，地幔和地核。火星上也有吗....

优西比乌斯:好，一个有趣的问题。你听清楚了吗，克里斯?

克里斯-这条电话线不太好。你能给我们总结一下吗?

优西比乌斯:是的。他说地球，我们知道，有很多层，地壳，地幔，地核。我们对火星表面以下的地层有类似的了解吗?

克里斯-我们知道一点，但不是那么多。我们之所以对地球内部有如此多的了解，是因为近一百年来的科学家，包括一位名叫莫霍洛维契奇的克罗地亚科学家，简称莫霍，因为这个名字很难念出来，因为最后有那么多“痒”。他的数学做得很好。

优西比乌斯:我想知道你发生了什么事!

克里斯·莫霍洛维契奇，他是一位了不起的数学家，他能够利用地震波。因此，当地球上某个地方发生地震时，地震产生的波穿过地球，并在地球内部的某些层上反射。所以如果你记录下这些波，当它们回来的时候，它们是如何被反射的，哪些没有被反射，哪些被反射了。地震中有不同类型的波你可以用不同类型的波来做这个，你可以有效地扫描地球。这就是为什么我们知道地球有点像一个洋葱，里面有不同的层，因为人们做了这些地震测量。现在我们还没有机会用同样的方法对其他行星做这样的研究，所以没有相同的细节。但是我们对其他行星的推断，我们知道是因为我们可以对它们的构成进行建模。所以我们知道火星是一颗岩石行星。我们知道它有火山活动;它拥有太阳系中最大的火山之一，即使不是最大的火山——奥林匹斯山，高20多公里。 So we know Mars has broadly a similar sort of structure to the Earth so we can infer some things about it. We know that the gas giant planets like Saturn and Jupiter, for example, they have a very different composition to the Earth. So we have some idea, but we have the most detail at the moment of our own planet just because we've used things like earthquakes and a lot of recordings to give the Earth a very detailed indepth scan. In the future, I think, this will change because we've got probes out there now which are orbiting these bodies. They're making measurements, they're using things like the magnetic field. They're doing things on the surface like the rovers that are on Mars to work these things out. But at the moment our level of understanding of the interior of these other bodies is more limited.

优西比乌斯-布兰达，早上好。欢迎来到我们的节目。

布兰达-早上好，先生们。我想问克里斯，这对医学有不良影响吗?因为我知道很多年轻人都在用它，而且共用一个话筒。

克里斯-你好，布兰达。所以对于不熟悉的人来说，这些也被称为“妓女”和“哈勃气泡”管道。这个想法是你把烟草放在你燃烧的顶部。当你在水瓶里抽烟斗的时候，它会把烟从水瓶里抽出来，把烟从水里抽出来，然后上升到喷嘴里。这样做的理由是它可以冷却烟雾，从而改善体验。它还去除了一些水溶性的更酸的气味，使烟的味道更好。我这么做不是因为我不喜欢抽烟。有些人确实认同这一点。这是他们的选择。你担心某些方面是对的。 One: smoking is always bad. It's the worst thing you can do from your health. And it's not just me on a on a soapbox saying that. Epidemiologically and statistically there's nothing really, apart from jumping off a building, that you can do that's worse for your health than smoking. Smoking causes cancer but it also means it causes heart disease and strokes. Most people don't live long enough to get cancer because they've already died if they smoke - it takes a good 10 years off your life. So first thing, if you want to smoke that's your choice, but you'd be strongly advised if you care about how long you want to live and the quality of your life - don't smoke. The second point is, that as you highlight quite accurately, people often share the mouthpieces and there are infections that can be spread by saliva. The common ones are things like hepatitis B but also more mundane things like herpes simplex virus that causes cold sores - you don't want that - and the common cold. All these things go in saliva. So you could transmit them but then, at the same time, you could say well I won't kiss someone then. So you've got to be sensible about this and so have a careful choice about who perhaps you share one of these things with, and if you think its really worth the experience. But on the whole really, I think the saliva risk, it pales into insignificance against the risk of smoking. Its better not to smoke.

尤西比乌斯-谢谢你的问题，布伦达。非常感谢。安德鲁，早上好。

安德鲁-是的。你好,优西比乌。博士克里斯。我牙齿上有个洞。现在我注意到的是，当我喝冷水时，它会感到疼痛，但当我喝啤酒时，我一点也不感到疼痛。为什么会这样呢?

优西比乌斯:你的啤酒热了吗?

安德鲁:对不起。

优西比乌斯——我开玩笑的。我想你是说冰啤酒没有同样的效果吧?

安德鲁-听着，什么都有可能。我一点感觉都没有。

优西比乌斯:哦，这很有趣。克里斯。

克里斯:我认为，当人们抱怨牙齿敏感时，他们倾向于说冷的东西很痛苦，而热的东西就不那么严重了。这可能是因为你的体温是37度，而一杯45度的热饮可能只有10/15度的温差。当你喝一杯接近零度的冰水时，这几乎是30度或更多的温差。所以这可能只是温差，因此你感受到的影响的程度。也有可能是冷水让蛀牙周围的牙齿冷却了更长的时间，或者你的牙齿表面结冰了，或者你也开始了其他的事情，比如在敏感的牙齿同时出现冰淇淋头痛，这就是为什么你会同时出现一大堆症状，让你更注意到它。我怀疑这就是原因。但是如果你的牙齿上有一个洞你就会允许更多的热量在牙齿内部的牙本质和外部世界的敏感神经之间流动，所以你会注意到更多的温差。但我怀疑你更注意到冷的原因是，正如我所说，冰水和体温之间的温差比体温和热饮之间的温差更大。

优西比乌斯-特里，欢迎来到我们的节目。你有什么问题要问克里斯?

特里-大家早上好。我有一个快速的。我妻子当时在英国，她在一本健康杂志上看到一篇关于发酵粉的文章。比如用发酵粉清洗蔬菜等等。它说的是水或漂白剂的效果，稀薄的漂白剂可以去除13种潜在的有害农药用1%的发酵粉在水中浸泡15分钟。克里斯，我想听听你的看法这是事实还是只是有人想卖发酵粉?

克里斯:嗯，发酵粉真的很便宜。它是碳酸氢钠，是一种弱碱性溶液。我没有看到有问题的报告，也没有看到任何证据或声称这是去除水果和蔬菜表面残留物的最佳方法。当然，你应该总是用淡水清洗你买的东西，而不是你自己种植的。即使你自己种植，你也应该经常洗掉它们，因为它们可能有农药残留。可能还有其他残留物。有时在某些地方，实际上是很多地方，他们用一种叫做夜土的东西来促进植物的生长。夜土，对于那些可能不想在吃早餐时听到这个的人来说，夜土是污水。它富含像磷这样的丰富物质，所以它对土壤的富集很有帮助，但其中有微生物可以附着在水果和蔬菜的表面。如果你不仔细清洗，不去皮，它们也会嵌在水果和蔬菜的果肉里，这可能是最好的建议。 Peel it, boil it, or leave it's the traveler's advice isn't it? Then you could pick up those microbes. I don't think a weak solution of baking powder, given that it doesn't do you any harm, it doesn't seem to do your microbiome any harm when you eat it, and your stomach acid is really powerful anyway, I don't think the bicarb is going to make a huge difference. I think just washing things with running water, clean water. Not too much clean water, just a bowl to swill them round is probably adequate to dislodge these chemicals...

优西比乌斯——有趣的问题。奈杰尔，早上好。

奈杰尔-你好。

优西比乌:说吧。我们能听到你，奈杰尔。

奈杰尔-谢谢你接我电话。克里斯，我只是想问你就你所知有没有两个人被发现有相同的指纹。

优西比乌斯——老家伙克里斯。

克里斯-你是说基因指纹还是物理指纹?或者我们可以两种都谈谈。答案是否定的。但我们并没有仔细研究整个人类，对吧?所以我很有可能会说有些人的指纹非常相似。但当你谈论基因指纹时，答案是肯定的，也不是。基因指纹绝对是独一无二的，你的DNA密码中有30亿个基因字母。但如果你克隆了自己，也就是说你有一个同卵双胞胎，你们确实共享一个基因指纹。你的指纹，虽然你的基因指纹是相同的，但你的物理指纹会略有不同因为你的指纹是在胚胎发育过程中随机变化的，这给了你的手指他们自己独特的模式。你的基因指纹从你怀孕的那一刻起就没有变化。

优西比乌斯-布莱恩，欢迎来到裸体科学家。说吧，你的问题是什么?

布莱恩-早上好。嗨,克里斯。原谅我。回到微生物组的话题上，你可能读过魏茨曼研究所最近关于益生菌的研究，该研究基本上质疑益生菌作为常规食物补充剂的有效性。但更重要的是，质疑医生将益生菌与抗生素结合使用的有效性。不是同时服用，而是在抗生素治疗后重新填充肠道菌群。我想知道你对这项研究有什么看法?

克里斯-这是个棘手的问题。我们所知道的是绝对肯定的，当我们说益生菌时，益生菌是指含有微生物的食物或东西。例如，酸奶中含有乳酸菌，这种细菌喜欢吃乳糖。它们是可以存活的。吃这些东西的基本原理是它们通过你的胃进入你的肠道，它们在你的肠道中填充了所谓的有益细菌，对你的微生物群做出了有益的贡献，这些微生物群是生活在你体内和你身上的细菌。当我们出生的时候，这个过程对你建立健康的生活至关重要，因为你的微生物群是在你出生的时候从你妈妈那里得到的。所以婴儿确实会用嘴叼起虫子，然后把它们填满肠道。我们不太清楚的是，随着年龄的增长，这种情况会发生怎样的变化。我们知道，当你生病时，你的微生物群确实会失去平衡。所以，如果你在这些食品、酸奶饮料和你可以买到的东西中摄入一些微生物，这样做真的有助于重置平衡吗? It's tricky. Scientists have looked at this and they have some evidence that enough bugs do survive the stomach acid in order to populate the gut. Whether or not they make a meaningful difference to the outcome for diseases like if you have an upset stomach and you take some in the short term, or if you have a chronic upset stomach and you take some, we don't know for absolute sure. People have done a number of studies on this and they've got mixed results. So the thing is that for every set of studies you do there'll be some that show positive benefits, some that show a negative benefit. So at the moment the evidence is these are not doing people any harm. The evidence is, therefore, that if you do this you're not going to harm yourself and you may have some benefit. So people are'nt saying don't do this, but were certainly doing more studies to try to find out whether or not this is as beneficial as we hope it can be. And also whether or not we might be able to make it even more beneficial by doing things slightly differently. One one of the big revolutions in the last five years or so - ten years - has been the concept of the transpoosion. The idea that if you have an upset bowel flora with conditions like c diff, your life can be saved by recolonizing and repopulating your intestine with the right sorts of bugs from a poo donor. We know those bugs can get in, flourish, and save lives so we know there's merit in doing this kind of thing. Its the route of administration and the sorts of bugs that you need to give and when. That data are still being explored and ironed out, so watch this space. It's certainly an interesting time.

优西比乌斯——很有意思。Untombi，早上好。

你好，尤西比乌在Tombia。我只是想问一下，因为我听到他在谈论生物钟。我的经验是，当我不为第二天早上设置闹钟时，我只是告诉自己我要在凌晨4点起床。我自己会自动醒来。它是生物钟的一部分还是什么?

优西比乌斯:好问题。克里斯。

Chris -这是一个很好的问题。是的，它是你生物钟的一部分。人类是有习惯的生物，所以如果我们养成了在特定的时间睡觉的习惯，我们就会在特定的时间感到困倦，我们会在特定的时间睡觉，然后在特定的时间醒来。更不寻常的是，我想在4点起床，并预先安排你的生物钟来做这件事。但如果你已经在很多场合这样做了，并且你已经养成了这样做的习惯，因为时间对你的身体非常重要，所以这种情况发生是完全合理的。我通常在一周的6:30或6.45起床，把我的孩子们叫醒，然后送他们去学校。然后到了周末，你想啊，幸福，我要睡个懒觉了。当然，星期六早上，你在6点45分醒来，尽管你不必这样做，原因很简单，你是习惯的产物，你的生物钟已经预先设定好了，就像它有一个闹钟一样，在那个时候把你叫醒，因为它知道在一周的正常情况下，你的新陈代谢是在早上6点45分开始的，所以它在早上6点45分把你叫醒。这就是为什么我们作为一个物种是成功的，因为我们是有习惯的生物，可以学习和适应，然后冲洗和重复。

优西比乌斯-布莱恩，早上好。

布莱恩-早上好。优西比乌斯，我很快就说。好吧，在过去的十年左右，我一直在睡梦中醒来，大概10点或11点。当有人叫醒我的时候，我就可以和他们说话了，就像我现在和你说话一样。但是当我早上醒来的时候，我忘记了我说过的话，我们说过的话，这几乎是我一生中一直在发生的事情。所以我想知道是什么引起的?是因为我是左撇子右撇子，两个球都是功吗?我不知道。也许裸体科学家可以，是的。

克里斯-嗨，布莱恩。其实你并不孤单，很多人都有这样的经历。当我晚上给孩子掖好被子时，我很开心，我会去看看我能和他们聊多少话，这很有趣。你应该试试。当然不是和我的孩子。但是去找一些孩子或者其他人试试吧。发生这种情况的原因是，当我们入睡时，睡眠不仅仅是一个开/关的状态。当你度过夜晚时，睡眠在进化，你入睡时做的事情也在进化。所以当你第一次入睡时，你会进入深度睡眠，但随后你会有一些接近清醒的时期。大脑变得非常活跃，随着夜晚的推移，这种极端活动的时间也变得越来越长。 If you look at a person who's doing this, you'll notice their eyes are moving a lot beneath their eyelids and that's rapid eye movement sleep. They're dreaming at that time, so the brain has revved up its activity. We don't know why we dream, but we know those dreams become more sustained and more complex and richer as an experience as we go on through the night. If you wake someone up when they're in the middle of one of those dreams they will often paint this picture of what they were doing or what was happening in their dream. They can recall it. But come the morning they'll not be able to recall any of those dream states that they had during the night. So there's some process whereby although you're having all these experiences you just forget them. Now when someone comes along and disturbs your sleep and talks to you you're in one of those phases probably, which is why they've been able to rouse you and get you to talk to them. But because the mechanisms that suppress memory and you don't consolidate remembering your dreams are still in play, you don't really remember any of that sort of conversation, except perhaps vaguely remembering that you said something really rather daft. Which is why I do this to my kids because they come up with absolute rubbish, but its hilarious. So just reassure yourself you're making someones day when they have a conversation with you at night.

优西比乌斯——令人惊叹。克里斯，我们下周再做一次。祝你周末愉快，下周愉快。

克里斯-谢谢大家。周末愉快，下次见。